Millennium Technologies, LLC history

It took over 70 years before the amateur astronomer Schwabe announced in 1844 that sunspot activity varies cyclically with a period of about 10 years.

1860) is not confirmed by direct solar or geomagnetic data.

Sunspot areas are available since 1874 in the Greenwich series obtained from daily photographic images of the sun.

Yule, G.U., 1927, “On a Method of Investigating Periodicities in Disturbed Series, with Special Reference to Wolfer’s Sunspot Numbers”, Philos.

Parker, E.N., 1955, “Hydromagnetic Dynamo Models”, Astrophys.

Elsasser, W., Nay, E.P. and Winkler, J.R., 1956, “Cosmic-ray intensity and geomagnetism”, Nature, 178, 1226–1227. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on page 32.)

Bray, R.J. and Loughhead, R.E., 1964, Sunspots, vol.

Vitinsky, Y.I., 1965, Solar Activity Forecasting, Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem (Cited on pages 15, 16, and 18.))

Kigoshi, K. and Hasegawa, H., 1966, “Secular variation of atmospheric radiocarbon concentration and its dependence on geomagnetism”, J. Geophys.

Lal, D. and Peters, B., 1967, “Cosmic Ray Produced Radioactivity on the Earth”, in Handbuch der Physik, (Ed.) Sittle, K., vol.

Further, but still reasonable, assumptions (constant solar-wind speed, roughly power-law CR energy spectrum, slow spatial changes of the CR density) lead to the force-field approximation (Gleeson and Axford, 1968), which can be solved analytically.

Gleissberg, W., 1971, “The Probable Behaviour of Sunspot Cycle 21”, Solar Phys., 21, 240–245. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on page 16.)

Mayaud, P.-N., 1972, “The aa indices: A 100-year series characterizing the magnetic activity”, J. Geophys.

O’Brien, K. and Burke, G.D.P., 1973, “Calculated cosmic ray neutron monitor response to solar modulation of galactic cosmic rays”, J. Geophys.

Starting from the original representation (Oeschger et al., 1974), a variety of box models have been developed, which take into account subdivisions of the ocean reservoir and direct exchange between the deep ocean and the atmosphere at high latitudes.

Kuklin, G.V., 1976, “Cyclical and Secular Variations of Solar Activity”, in Basic Mechanisms of Solar Activity, (Eds.) Bumba, V., Kleczek, J., Symposium no.

Stuiver, M. and Pollach, H., 1977, “Discussion: Reporting of 14C data”, Radiocarbon, 19, 355–363 (Cited on page 26.)

Next was an analytical model by O’Brien (1979), who solved the problem of the GCR-induced cascade in the atmosphere using an analytical stationary approximation in the form of the Boltzmann equation, which has also been normalized per “star” formation.

Siscoe, G.L., 1980, “Evidence in the auroral record for secular solar variability”, Rev.

Ruzmaikin, A.A., 1981, “The solar cycle as a strange attractor”, Comments Astrophys., 9, 85–93. [ADS] (Cited on page 17.)

The routine production of the WSN series was terminated in Zuürich in 1982.

Eddy, J.A., 1983, “The Maunder Minimum — A reappraisal”, Solar Phys., 89, 195–207. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on pages 14 and 15.)

Therefore, a formal regression built using the annual data for 1610–1985 yields a much stronger GSN-vs-10Be dependence than for the cycle-averaged data (see Figure 10b), leading to a potentially-erroneous evaluation of the sunspot number from the 10Be proxy data.

Bracewell, R.N., 1986, “Simulating the sunspot cycle”, Nature, 323, 516–519. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on page 15.)

Bard, E., Arnold, M., Maurice, P. and Duplessy, J.-C., 1987, “Measurements of bomb radiocarbon in the ocean by means of accelerator mass spectrometry: Technical aspects”, Nucl.

Beer, J., Siegenthaler, U., Oeschger, H., Bonani, G. and Finkel, R.C., 1988, “Information on past solar activity and geomagnetism from Be-10 in the Camp Century ice core”, Nature, 331, 675–679. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on page 33.)

Brandenburg, A., Krause, F., Meinel, R., Moss, D. and Tuominen, I., 1989, “The stability of nonlinear dynamos and the limited role of kinematic growth rates”, Astron.

Schmalz, S. and Stix, M., 1991, “An α Ω dynamo with order and chaos”, Astron.

Moss, D., Brandenburg, A., Tavakol, R. and Tuominen, I., 1992, “Stochastic effects in mean-field dynamos”, Astron.

Ribes, J.C. and Nesme-Ribes, E., 1993, “The solar sunspot cycle in the Maunder minimum AD 1645 to AD 1715”, Astron.

Nevanlinna, H., 1995, “Auroral observations in Finland — visual sightings during the 18th and 19th centuries”, J. Geomag.

Oliver, R. and Ballester, J.L., 1996, “Rescaled Range Analysis of the Asymmetry of Solar Activity”, Solar Phys., 169, 215–224. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on page 16.)

The first thorough consistent comparison between 10Be and 14C records for the last millennium was performed by Bard et al. (1997). They assumed that the measured 10Be concentration in Antarctica is directly related to CR variations.

Conway, A.J., 1998, “Time series, neural networks and the future of the Sun”, New Astron.

Some additional longer characteristic times can be found, including the Gleissberg secular cycle, de Vries/Suess cycle, and a quasi-cycle of 2000–2400 years.

Grieder, P.K.F., 2001, Cosmic Rays at Earth: Researcher’s Reference Manual and Data Book, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam; New York (Cited on page 43.)

Solanki, S.K., Schüssler, M. and Fligge, M., 2002, “Secular variation of the Sun’s magnetic flux”, Astron.

Soon, W.W.-H. and Yaskell, S.H., 2003, The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun-Earth Connection, World Scientific, Singapore; River Edge, NJ. [Google Books] (Cited on page 49.)

Usoskin, I.G. and Kovaltsov, G.A., 2004, “Long-Term Solar Activity: Direct and Indirect Study”, Solar Phys., 224, 37–47. [DOI], [ADS] (Cited on pages 37 and 47.)

Charbonneau, P., 2005, “Dynamo Models of the Solar Cycle”, Living Rev.

Open circles represent space-borne measurements (Mewaldt, 2006).

Krivova, N.A., Balmaceda, L. and Solanki, S.K., 2007, “Reconstruction of solar total irradiance since 1700 from the surface magnetic flux”, Astron.

Webber, W.R. and Higbie, P.R., 2009, “Galactic propagation of cosmic ray nuclei in a model with an increasing diffusion coefficient at low rigidities: A comparison of the new interstellar spectra with Voyager data in the outer heliosphere”, J. Geophys.