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Job outlook for software project managers in the United States
Software project manager job growth summary. After extensive research, interviews, and analysis, Zippia's data science team found that:
The projected software project manager job growth rate is 21% from 2018-2028.
About 284,100 new jobs for software project managers are projected over the next decade.
Software project manager salaries have increased 10% for software project managers in the last 5 years.
There are over 22,008 software project managers currently employed in the United States.
There are 285,134 active software project manager job openings in the US.
The average software project manager salary is $115,181.
Are software project manager jobs in demand?
Software project manager job and salary trends over time
Software project manager jobs over time
Software project manager job growth rate over time
| Year | # of jobs | % of population |
|---|---|---|
| 2021 | 22,008 | 0.01% |
| 2020 | 42,193 | 0.01% |
| 2019 | 28,250 | 0.01% |
| 2018 | 18,301 | 0.01% |
| 2017 | 16,124 | 0.00% |
Average software project manager salary over time
Software project manager salary by year
| Year | Avg. salary | Hourly rate | % Change |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2026 | $115,181 | $55.38 | +3.4% |
| 2025 | $111,386 | $53.55 | +2.3% |
| 2024 | $108,864 | $52.34 | +1.8% |
| 2023 | $106,941 | $51.41 | +1.7% |
| 2022 | $105,145 | $50.55 | +1.9% |
Software project manager jobs by state
Most common states for software project managers
| Rank | State | Population | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | District of Columbia | 693,972 | 880 | 127% |
| 2 | Rhode Island | 1,059,639 | 544 | 51% |
| 3 | Washington | 7,405,743 | 3,673 | 50% |
| 4 | Massachusetts | 6,859,819 | 3,389 | 49% |
| 5 | Oregon | 4,142,776 | 1,920 | 46% |
| 6 | Virginia | 8,470,020 | 3,685 | 44% |
| 7 | Vermont | 623,657 | 272 | 44% |
| 8 | Utah | 3,101,833 | 1,301 | 42% |
| 9 | Delaware | 961,939 | 390 | 41% |
| 10 | Minnesota | 5,576,606 | 2,151 | 39% |
| 11 | New Hampshire | 1,342,795 | 520 | 39% |
| 12 | Maryland | 6,052,177 | 2,133 | 35% |
| 13 | California | 39,536,653 | 13,292 | 34% |
| 14 | North Dakota | 755,393 | 256 | 34% |
| 15 | Kansas | 2,913,123 | 959 | 33% |
| 16 | Montana | 1,050,493 | 345 | 33% |
| 17 | Colorado | 5,607,154 | 1,721 | 31% |
| 18 | New Mexico | 2,088,070 | 657 | 31% |
| 19 | Nebraska | 1,920,076 | 579 | 30% |
| 20 | Wisconsin | 5,795,483 | 1,683 | 29% |
Most common cities for software project managers
| Rank | City | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl | Avg. salary |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chanhassen | 2 | 8% | $93,988 |
| 2 | Burlington | 1 | 4% | $114,325 |
| 3 | American Fork | 1 | 3% | $98,162 |
| 4 | Annapolis | 1 | 3% | $109,180 |
| 5 | Charlottesville | 1 | 2% | $116,144 |
| 6 | Cupertino | 1 | 2% | $136,219 |
| 7 | Atlanta | 3 | 1% | $97,275 |
| 8 | Boulder | 1 | 1% | $80,468 |
| 9 | Grand Rapids | 1 | 1% | $113,289 |
| 10 | San Jose | 2 | 0% | $135,892 |
| 11 | Tulsa | 2 | 0% | $93,700 |
| 12 | Chicago | 1 | 0% | $101,424 |
| 13 | Dallas | 1 | 0% | $90,705 |
| 14 | Detroit | 1 | 0% | $116,288 |
Software Project Manager job outlook: Expert opinions
Our panel of software project manager experts
Nova Southeastern University
Seminole State College of Florida
Ohio State University
Mount St. Joseph University
Heidelberg University
University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire
University of Hawaii at Hilo
Southeastern Louisiana University
University of Tulsa
Kansas State University
Gannon University
Metropolitan State University of Denver
Eastern Washington University
Auburn University at Montgomery
University of New Haven
University of Minnesota Crookston
Penn State Behrend
Murray State University
Wofford College
What Software Project Manager skills would you recommend for someone trying to advance their career?
Sepehr Mohammadian: 1. This is a pretty broad question. CS degree graduates can engage in different tasks and responsibilities based on the nature of their profession. Examples include 1) software engineering, in which the individual's efforts are toward leading or contributing to software development projects, 2) IT management, where the individual mainly oversees technology strategies and their implementation, 3) cybersecurity, where the individual's responsibilities are associated with the protection of systems and data from cyber threats, and 4) data and AI engineering, where the individual works on machine learning applications and analyze and derive insights from large datasets.
Junping Sun Ph.D.
ProfessorNova Southeastern University
Computer Software And Media Applications
What Software Project Manager skills would you recommend for someone trying to advance their career?
Junping Sun Ph.D.: Computer Science and its applications in various fields are very dynamic and constantly evolving, and anyone in the fields needs to prepare to be adaptive by lifelong learning.
What will help Software Project Managers increase their earning potential?
Junping Sun Ph.D.: Computer science is an algorithm science for problem solving in real world applications. The skills of problem solving require critical thinking with solid foundation of the professional knowledge in the relevant domains. It is crucial to have strong critical thinking skill with sophisticated logical and philosophical perspectives.
What will help Software Project Managers increase their earning potential?
Holger Findling: Technologies are changing very fast, and you must change with it. Don't be rigid. AI is going to increase in the next five years, and the demand for programmers will be high. You would have to take courses studying AI concepts. Bio-Medical fields and Biometrics will be expanding in capabilities and these fields will need a lot of programmers. Take some additional courses, for example Biology and Chemistry.
Dr. Laura Deeter PhD
Professor of Practice: Horticulture and Crop ScienceOhio State University
Applied Horticulture And Horticultural Business Services
What general advice would you give to a Software Project Manager?
Dr. Laura Deeter PhD: Be open to learning and trying something outside of your comfort zone.
Be willing to work hard and don't expect to be project manager right out of school. Hard work will get you there fast enough.
What Software Project Manager skills would you recommend for someone trying to advance their career?
Dr. Laura Deeter PhD: There are more than enough positions out there to find one with a good starting salary. Apply for as many as you can.
Be willing to relocate to another city or state.
What will help Software Project Managers increase their earning potential?
Dr. Laura Deeter PhD: There are more than enough positions out there to find one with a good starting salary. Apply for as many as you can.
Be willing to relocate to another city or state.
Rebecca Allen
Mount St. Joseph University
Special Education And Teaching
What general advice would you give to a Software Project Manager?
Rebecca Allen: AI, for sure. I have heard it said that AI might not replace humans, rather humans who know how to use AI well may replace humans who don't.
Dr. Trish Berg
Associate Professor of Management, Heidelberg University, Tiffin, OhioHeidelberg University
Business Administration, Management And Operations
What general advice would you give to a Software Project Manager?
Dr. Trish Berg: Being a project manager involves constant change, learning, and interaction with diverse teams in various departments of an organization. The best parts of being a project manager include working with diverse people, building relationships, creating something new with each new project, empowering and motivating teams, gaining global knowledge, collaboration, impacting organizational culture, and delivering value with completed projects. Some of the difficult parts of working as a project manager include sometimes having accountability without the needed authority to be successful, not having diverse enough skills and having to use estimation and guesswork at times and relying on others for their knowledge. Project managers deal with a lot of uncertainty and must be resilient in how they react to each bump in the road.
What Software Project Manager skills would you recommend for someone trying to advance their career?
Dr. Trish Berg: Daily, project managers create plans, create work schedules, build, and motivate teams, assign, and track work from start to finish, set project setting scopes and budgets, create workflow plans, and define what key performance indicators (KPIs) are which is how they can measure project success. Project managers must be both people focused, and task focused. Successful project managers understand what Sinek calls the power of the why in order to successfully motivate teams towards success.
What will help Software Project Managers increase their earning potential?
Dr. Trish Berg: One career field that is in high demand and growing is project management. With the complexity and flexibility needed in today's fast-paced culture, many organizations in diverse industries rely on project managers to complete jobs and organize teams to meet the needs of customers.
Daily, project managers create plans, create work schedules, build, and motivate teams, assign, and track work from start to finish, set project setting scopes and budgets, create workflow plans, and define what key performance indicators (KPIs) are which is how they can measure project success.
Project managers must be both people focused, and task focused. Successful project managers understand what Sinek calls the power of the why in order to successfully motivate teams towards success.
Dr. Longzhu Dong Ph.D.
Assistant ProfessorUniversity of Wisconsin - Eau Claire
Management + Marketing Department
What soft skills should all Software Project Managers possess?
Dr. Longzhu Dong Ph.D.: The world of international business has changed a great deal in the past few years. Due to increased globalization, massive technological advances in online coordination, and the Covid pandemic, the need to develop project managers who can lead fully functioning global virtual teams (GVTs) has never been greater. Indeed, studies show that virtual teams are becoming the norm, and more and more multinational companies rely on GVTs to deal with their day-to-day challenges.
However, leading and working in GVTs poses unique challenges that traditional leadership approaches do not seem suited to tackling well. Such challenges include cross-cultural misunderstandings, lack of trust and spontaneity, poor communication, hard to focus and hold teammates accountable, all of which may result in low productivity. Therefore, to thrive in the international business world today, a manager may need an entirely different set of skills.
Perhaps the most important soft skill is cultural intelligence (CQ). CQ refers to the ability to relate and work effectively across different cultures, triggering a train reaction in GVTs. It first requires people to have an open mindset, which helps them realize that cultural differences are just differences and that every culture has its own way of defining "right" and "wrong." Just as the famous Confucius teaching goes, "all people are the same; only their habits differ." Indeed, when differences are seen as something neutral, the negative consequences of cultural bias can be minimized. CQ can also improve GVT communication effectiveness by better understanding visual and auditory cues such as body language and facial expressions so that GVT members will not form false impressions based on stereotypes. When everyone on your team is ready for open dialogue, GVTs can easily clarify shared team goals and guidelines, set clear expectations of each role, and foster trust along the way.
If CQ is the most important soft skill, then being tech-savvy would be the most important hard skill. Technological advances in online coordination/communication make global virtual teams possible and function well. As of right now, there are a lot of great online tools (e.g., Zoom, Google Meet, etc.) that integrate all key types of communication: conference call, breakout rooms, text messaging, file sharing, and online collaboration. However, simply being able to use various virtual meeting tools well is not enough because there's no one-size-fits-all tool for every team all the time. Being tech-savvy asks managers to steer the digital transformation in their teams promptly. It requires managers to constantly evaluate the emerging new technologies and make sure their choice of the tools "fits" their teams' needs over time, which may include members' network conditions, tool preferences, work style, tech skill levels, and the nature of the task/project.
Working in a global virtual team isn't necessarily only about challenges and lower productivity. It can become a valuable advantage and even build a 24/7 work cycle in teams, with proper training on CQ and technological skills.
Travis Mandel Ph.D.
Assistant ProfessorUniversity of Hawaii at Hilo
Department of Computer Science
What soft skills should all Software Project Managers possess?
Travis Mandel Ph.D.: Although computer science seems like a highly technical field, soft skills are really what differentiates software engineers. One of the most important qualities of any software engineer is explaining their code clearly at various levels of technical depth and explaining why certain design decisions were made. You could write code that does amazing things, but if that code consists of snippets you pasted from StackOverflow without really fully understanding them, it will be a huge headache for anyone who needs to come into the codebase later and maintain or update it.
Another one is asking the right questions. Imagine you are dropped into a huge codebase and asked to add a new feature (very common!). There's no time to understand everything that is going on, but on the other hand, you need to understand enough of the code to do your task effectively, which involves asking questions. A failure to ask questions will likely result in you wasting a huge amount of time working on something that is ultimately not useful, for instance, re-implementing a complex function that already exists somewhere in the codebase.
Dr. Ghanssan Alkadi Ph.D.
Professor of Computer ScienceSoutheastern Louisiana University
Department of Computer Science
What hard/technical skills are most important for Software Project Managers?
Dr. Ghanssan Alkadi Ph.D.: Analytical and programming skills to solve problems at hand.
Sal Aurigemma Ph.D.
Associate Professor of CIS, J. Bradley Oxley Professor of Computer Information SystemsUniversity of Tulsa
School of Accounting and CIS at the Collins College of Business
What hard/technical skills are most important for Software Project Managers?
Sal Aurigemma Ph.D.: Students graduating with Information Systems and related degrees usually have little problem finding employment upon graduation. However, the pandemic upended that paradigm for some. For those who recently graduated and are still looking for employment, keep the faith and develop your technical skills. Developers should show prospective employers that they are familiar with agile programming methodologies and modern DevOps stacks and processes. Data analysts should be focused on presenting their ability to work with structured and unstructured data, effectively query data using SQL & NoSQL, and, most importantly, provide actionable insight by making data accessible and relatable to decision-makers at all levels of an organization. Those interested in cloud architecture and cyber security careers have to keep current on their skills and certifications. Cloud engineers need to stay aware of the constant changes happening at the major providers (AWS, Azure, GCP) and, as with all other IT fields, provide tangible evidence of your skills via real projects that you have worked on. Prospective cyber security analysts should first focus on identifying their first specialization because there are too many security roles to learn them all at once, especially as beginners. Two popular entry-level cyber security jobs include information security consultant and Security Operations Center (SOC). Both of these roles require a sound foundation in networking fundamentals, vulnerability identification and mitigation, and an understanding of organizationally relevant security and privacy frameworks and regulations.
What will help Software Project Managers increase their earning potential?
Brett Horton Ph.D.: - Willingness to take on increased responsibility
- Willingness to move locations
- Willingness to work in different departments to learn and grow with the organization
How do you envision technology impacting Software Project Managers in the next 5 years?
Dr. Stephen Frezza Ph.D.: Breadth and depth: Computing is becoming more like engineering; where the value of the product, its lifetime risks, costs, and benefits are more critical than just it's roll-out. So the engineering competencies that have always been a part of computing will become more central. Computing is also expanding; the role of data and the shift of once-research technologies (like machine learning) into production applications will continue to require computing graduates to broaden their base and continue as learners. This will cause shifts in what is considered 'fundamental' and the need for professionals to continue to hone and redevelop their technical skill sets.
Are there any particularly good places in the United States for Software Project Managers to find work opportunities?
Dr. Stephen Frezza Ph.D.: Computing is ubiquitous, and with more industries moving to remote work, location is becoming less critical. If the internet reaches a place reliably, computing jobs can be located there.
Janos Fustos Ph.D.
ProfessorMetropolitan State University of Denver
Department of Computer Information Systems and Business Analytics
What's a good job out of college for Software Project Managers?
Janos Fustos Ph.D.: I hope students are asking that question before they enroll in the first course at a college because otherwise, they would waste lot of time and money to work on a degree or a career path that does not fulfill their goals and personal interest. In that sense any job is a good job that somebody understands, feels that he/she is a good fit and can live up to the imposed challenges, and has the knowledge/skills to work in the field. There are interesting and self-fulfilling jobs to choose from. Certainly, it starts with the definition what a "good" means to an individual, what are the attributes of that definition: is that the professional area, is the salary, is it the challenging nature, is it more about the working environment and the people they can work with, is it the promotion options, the high impact etc. There are several lists available on the internet that provide recommendations and track the different aspects of job selection options for seekers.
Christian Hansen Ph.D.
Professor and Department ChairEastern Washington University
Department of Mathematics
What's a day at work look like for a Software Project Manager?
Christian Hansen Ph.D.: In the post-pandemic era, a typical workday for a recent graduate will likely involve some form of remote work. I predict that many businesses will benefit from the reduced cost of remote infrastructure compared to the cost of maintaining brick and mortar office space. Many new graduates will continue to spend their day on a computer while collaborating in teams via Zoom and other teleconference tools. People working in disciplines that have traditionally been "on the ground" will move towards more hybrid modes of work, reducing the need for travel and participating in face-to-face meetings and training.
Will there be an enduring impact of the coronavirus pandemic on Software Project Managers?
Dr. Semih Dinc: I personally think there may be a positive impact of this pandemic for CS graduates in medium/long term. Even if many companies have frozen or slowed down their hiring process now, I believe this is a temporary decision. There is still a big need for new CS graduates in the industry. And to me it is more clear that people realized they can work remotely for many CS related positions. This means that many companies can cut their physical office budgets and hire more remote people. One of the factors for our students is the challenges/expenses of the city they would work. Some of them do not want to move to big cities. I am assuming with more remote working opportunities graduates will have more options.
What certifications/licenses/courses can have the biggest impact for Software Project Managers?
Christopher Martinez Ph.D.: Courses that have a heavy emphasis on hands-on projects can have a massive impact on your job prospects. In the technology field, you want to make sure your resume has many tools/skills that the industry uses, from hardware, test equipment, software tools, and programming languages. If you can take a course that will allow you to learn what industry uses while teaching you theory, you should run to take the course.
What's a good job out of college for Software Project Managers?
Christopher Martinez Ph.D.: The best job you can have out of college is a job you have passion for and will set you up to advance your career. If you have always wanted to work in aerospace, then you should seek out that field from the start. I hate to see students settle for a job because of pay or because they feel they can move to their dream field later.
What skills stand out on Software Project Manager resumes?
Rutherford Johnson Ph.D.: Well, familiarity and proficiency with the technology I just described is now important. I also always promote language as a highly valuable skill -- and if you are working internationally, even remotely, it is a definite skill that makes you stand out. Even though English is now the main international language, do not just rely on that if that is your main language. Knowing the language of your clients, for example, even just a little of it, can pay off and make you get noticed. It also helps you understand the culture and people of that country a lot better.
Are there any particularly good places in the United States for Software Project Managers to find work opportunities?
Rutherford Johnson Ph.D.: With the remote working possibilities, graduates could work for a company in a big city without leaving their hometown. As for classic jobs with relocation involved, that really depends on the field. For international business, the major international and finance cities such as New York, Boston, and Atlanta are always significant -- though with definite cost of living problems. My advice is to look everywhere and be willing to give a city or region you never thought of living in a try. The less-traveled path can often lead to great success.
What are the biggest trends we'll see in the Software Project Manager job market given the pandemic?
Rutherford Johnson Ph.D.: People and companies have seen that many jobs can be done from home or remotely, and the technology exists and is improving to allow that. It also allows for more work-life balance, which is, in my opinion, important both for health and for worker productivity. I expect this trend will continue to one degree or another, even as more in-person interaction returns. The same mindset and technology also allows for more international engagement without travel or relocation. So, perhaps now we will see graduates in the USA working for companies in Germany, or from France working for Polish companies, and so on -- all without relocating. That is a great way to expand opportunities as well for those in developing countries who might not otherwise have access to such jobs.
Will there be an enduring impact of the coronavirus pandemic on Software Project Managers?
Phil Stuczynski: Yes, and no. On the one hand, we can look back to something as recent as the "Great Recession" from a little over a decade, and in some ways we are still seeing the impact from that generation. Rather than graduates being able to step into a strong entry level position in a desired field, you had many individuals who literally would take any job that was available. And, while it was admirable for individuals to go into a job (something is better than nothing), if you find yourself in a different career path or even in a job that may not need as much training in the skills you specifically went to school for, it can make an improper fit.
Now, the good news here is that students who have been trained in economics, or many business students in general tend to understand the broader vantage point of business. In times like these, even if unemployment starts to creep up, there will be businesses climbing over one another to try and secure talent that can understand data. Certain computer skills, forecasting skills, drawing connections between differing levels of business, any every other combination of resource and household management will be useful to a business.
So, will there be an impact? Perhaps. Jobs are probably just a bit more difficult to come by right now as compared to even one calendar year ago. That being said, many universities have continued to not only have students positioned well so they can plug right in and be effective remotely, but many of those students are as good or better with the technology and software as those in the private sector.
What type of skills will young Software Project Managers need?
Phil Stuczynski: Hitting just a few of the big ones, computer skills are going to be as important as ever. We have seen individuals in many fields embrace the idea of technology. Supply chains are being tested, and with that comes the financial capacity to build those facilities and shipping routes. International skills including trade and negotiations will be key. And truly any of the numbers from data analysis, to software that helps understand and manipulate said data, and especially financial and accounting. The long story short is probably three major skills.
1) Communication (with people and computers / software). 2) Analysis (economic at the macro level, and business specific / financial / accounting at the micro level). and 3) Self learning. As we have seen through this pandemic, we have seen processes, systems, products, and entire operations literally change overnight in response to biological threats, supply chains being broken, or by government decree. Individuals who can adapt on the fly and go find a new solution (even if it means they need to teach themselves the system, teach themselves the technology or software, teach themselves the coding, etc.), those are the types of graduates that employers are not just going to like, but are actively looking for.
What experience really stands out on Software Project Manager resumes?
Phil Stuczynski: Currently? I think a big one is going to be being flexible, showing you are able to adapt, and having any example of continuing to push through during these recent times.
We have had students who have literally been stuck. They have been in an apartment or a dormitory hours (or countries) away from home. And yet they still managed. They still did their coursework, they learned new software on the fly, they felt comfortable asking more questions than ever and even teaching themselves more as needed.
When we go back to something such as the great financial crisis, you had individuals who would sort of get burnt out when searching for a job. And to be fair, who could blame them. This was a strained economy and even the most qualified of candidates were hard pressed to find employment coming out of college when you had people with decades of experience competing just to continue bringing a paycheck in. However, you also had some individuals who would do what was necessary. For example I am keenly aware of an individual student I had years ago who was qualified for almost any job in a normal economy. That being said, he took a job with a bank where his degree wasn't even required. He was overqualified and knew it, but he would rather get experience than just sit around and do nothing. Fast forward a few years and he was not only at that bank only a short time before being promoted, but he used that promotion to move into yet a higher role later and has continued to enjoy success he may not have had if he was just waiting on a good job to come along.
What I'm saying is, the parallels here are through no fault of their own, students are going to enter an economy where things aren't as normal as they were just weeks before. This is going to sort itself out, but the students who push forward and adapt and just do something will stand out compared to those who sit on the sidelines and wait. Anything that highlights they are flexible and able to work in the face of disjointed operations or new limitations will not just find themselves being sought after, but because businesses need employees who can make quick changes on the fly more than ever, those students who can prove they can do it? They're going to be the ones who get ahead.
Dr. Matthew Tennyson Ph.D.
Associate Professor of Computer ScienceMurray State University
Computer Science and Information Systems
What certifications/licenses/courses can have the biggest impact for Software Project Managers?
Dr. Matthew Tennyson Ph.D.: A bachelor's degree in computer science is extremely valuable. It has been and continues to be one of the most valuable college degrees a student can pursue. I really think all areas of computing are in demand, but web and mobile computing might be one of the strongest. Some employers do like to see extra certifications in addition to the bachelor's degree. There are literally hundreds of certifications available in the computing industry. They all vary in the required amount of time, effort, and money. I think anything that can set a candidate apart from other candidates is valuable, and that includes any certification. I would not recommend investing thousands of dollars into additional certifications after completing a bachelor's degree, but I don't think it's a bad idea for students to pursue one of the free or lower-cost certifications that are available - especially those students who might not have strong internship experience, extracurricular activities, projects, etc. to put on their resumes. I think anything DevOps related or cloud-based like Amazon's AWS or Microsoft's Azure are especially valuable right now.
Dr. Smriti Bhargava Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of EconomicsWofford College
Economics Department
What are the biggest trends we'll see in the Software Project Manager job market given the pandemic?
Dr. Smriti Bhargava Ph.D.: This is a hard question to answer given the uncertainty that exists. One trend that is likely to stay is the possibility of working remotely or working-from-home. More and more companies are gravitating towards this trend, and this may open many exciting and flexible opportunities for new graduates and current workers. It may also take a while for the job market to heat up again and to create new jobs.
What skills stand out on Software Project Manager resumes?
Dr. Smriti Bhargava Ph.D.: I think skills of data analysis in addition to knowledge of software programs (through prior experience in terms of a research project with a faculty member or an internship) will stand out on a resume as college graduates search for jobs. Such experience signals abilities of quantitative reasoning and critical thinking, which are highly valued. In addition, good communication skills, both written and verbal, are extremely important.
Are there any particularly good places in the United States for Software Project Managers to find work opportunities?
Dr. Smriti Bhargava Ph.D.: It depends on what the student likes doing- if they enjoy working with numbers and data, they would be well suited for industry as data analysts. They may want to work in policy think tanks or government organizations as research associates of policy analysts if they want to learn about the effect of legislations. If math is their forte, Graduate school is also an interesting path to take if they are hoping to work in academia or pursue high-ranking positions in the government, research, and policy.