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Sports athletic trainer job growth summary. After extensive research, interviews, and analysis, Zippia's data science team found that:
The projected sports athletic trainer job growth rate is 17% from 2018-2028.
About 5,100 new jobs for sports athletic trainers are projected over the next decade.
Sports athletic trainer salaries have increased 9% for sports athletic trainers in the last 5 years.
There are over 3,827 sports athletic trainers currently employed in the United States.
There are 57,256 active sports athletic trainer job openings in the US.
The average sports athletic trainer salary is $48,071.
| Year | # of jobs | % of population |
|---|---|---|
| 2021 | 3,827 | 0.00% |
| 2020 | 4,027 | 0.00% |
| 2019 | 4,198 | 0.00% |
| 2018 | 3,947 | 0.00% |
| 2017 | 3,671 | 0.00% |
| Year | Avg. salary | Hourly rate | % Change |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2026 | $48,071 | $23.11 | +2.9% |
| 2025 | $46,702 | $22.45 | +2.0% |
| 2024 | $45,806 | $22.02 | +1.9% |
| 2023 | $44,957 | $21.61 | +2.2% |
| 2022 | $43,993 | $21.15 | +2.1% |
| Rank | State | Population | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Iowa | 3,145,711 | 236 | 8% |
| 2 | Indiana | 6,666,818 | 435 | 7% |
| 3 | Maryland | 6,052,177 | 410 | 7% |
| 4 | Connecticut | 3,588,184 | 240 | 7% |
| 5 | Mississippi | 2,984,100 | 201 | 7% |
| 6 | Kansas | 2,913,123 | 195 | 7% |
| 7 | Delaware | 961,939 | 70 | 7% |
| 8 | Rhode Island | 1,059,639 | 69 | 7% |
| 9 | Illinois | 12,802,023 | 789 | 6% |
| 10 | Pennsylvania | 12,805,537 | 713 | 6% |
| 11 | Massachusetts | 6,859,819 | 392 | 6% |
| 12 | Minnesota | 5,576,606 | 352 | 6% |
| 13 | Colorado | 5,607,154 | 325 | 6% |
| 14 | Louisiana | 4,684,333 | 282 | 6% |
| 15 | Kentucky | 4,454,189 | 274 | 6% |
| 16 | Utah | 3,101,833 | 173 | 6% |
| 17 | Nebraska | 1,920,076 | 107 | 6% |
| 18 | New Hampshire | 1,342,795 | 74 | 6% |
| 19 | District of Columbia | 693,972 | 44 | 6% |
| 20 | North Dakota | 755,393 | 43 | 6% |
| Rank | City | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl | Avg. salary |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Urbana | 2 | 5% | $43,861 |
| 2 | Jonesboro | 2 | 3% | $43,116 |
| 3 | Terre Haute | 2 | 3% | $39,954 |
| 4 | Jackson | 1 | 3% | $44,489 |
| 5 | Towson | 1 | 2% | $45,215 |
| 6 | Carmel | 1 | 1% | $40,506 |
| 7 | Fargo | 1 | 1% | $43,166 |
| 8 | Greeley | 1 | 1% | $46,329 |
| 9 | Hollywood | 1 | 1% | $45,683 |
| 10 | Pleasanton | 1 | 1% | $59,502 |
| 11 | Detroit | 1 | 0% | $45,087 |
| 12 | Urban Honolulu | 1 | 0% | $64,448 |
University of Kentucky
Willamette University
Concordia University
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
University of Illinois at Chicago
Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
Meredith College
Saint Mary's College of California
University of Illinois at Chicago
Montclair State University

University of Central Arkansas
Western New Mexico University
William Paterson University
Randolph College
John Wright: The field of Kinesiology is a remarkably diverse field. Students graduating with a degree in Kinesiology have a unique opportunity to pursue myriad opportunities. Currently, graduates are prepared to pursue graduate education or employment in fields as diverse as medicine, physical therapy, occupational therapy, athletic training, strength & conditioning / human performance, personal training, and corporate or medical wellness. With such a variety of opportunities, I strongly recommend that students entering the field try a variety of career options through a combination of field experiences, internships opportunities, and employment opportunities. Only after sampling the different specialities can students truly realize their passion! Often students enter their academic career with limited exposure to the field, and subsequently, they may feel pigeon-holed and/or limited in their career opportunities. I often tell my students to keep an open mind and take advantage of every opportunity presented! You never know when inspiration will strike, and that area of specialization that wasn’t initially on your radar might actually become your true calling!
John Wright: The field of Kinesiology has evolved significantly over the past 35 years. Specialization with specific populations is necessary in order to really make a name for yourself. Regardless of which populations you would like to work with (i.e.: Older Adults, Military/Tactical Strength & Conditioning, Competitive Sports / Human Performance, Corporate Wellness, Pediatric / Adolescent), there are common themes that have become essential for success in the field. Graduates in the field of Kinesiology should become very familiar with postural analysis, Functional Movement Screening, and corrective exercise. Additionally, an emphasis on injury prevention, exercise epidemiology (Exercise is Medicine), and longevity and health-span have become emerging trends. Finally, other than the Kinesiology-specific skills, competence in social media and marketing has become ubiquitous as a set of “soft-skills” in order to reach and match with emerging markets.
John Wright: Without a doubt, certification from a reputable agency is the first step to success! Depending on which direction your career takes you, certification may be either required or recommended. Fields like Athletic Training, Physical Therapy, and Occupational Therapy mandate either national certification and/or state licensure in order to practice. However, other areas of specialization like strength & conditioning and personal training do not have strict certification or licensure requirements. Whether or not your area of specialization requires a certification, being certified or licensed to practice ensures that you have met the minimal educational and professional standards in your field. With that said, I often recommend to our Athletic Training and pre-Physical Therapy students to obtain multiple credentials in order to enhance their professional marketability. Athletic Trainers should be certified by the National Athletic Trainers’ Association Board of Certification (NATABOC), and I recommend that they obtain the Certified Strength & Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) certification from the National Strength & Conditioning Association (NSCA). It’s also a good idea to pursue additional certifications such as the Performance Enhancement Specialist (PES) certification from the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), and the Certified Exercise Physiologist certification from the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). If your ambition is to work with “Tactical Athletes” (soldiers, firefighters, law enforcement officers), I strongly recommend attaining the Tactical Strength & Conditioning (TSAC) certification from the NSCA. If your goal is to become a personal trainer, there are a variety of personal training certifications that are available, but it is important to realize that not all certifications are created equal. NATA, NSCA, CSM, and NASM certifications are considered the most reputable, and they are all certifications that are accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA).
Chad Killian PhD: Regardless of the specific field a Kinesiology graduate enters, it is crucial to stay informed about current societal trends and emerging research. It will be essential to actively engage with students or clients to ensure practices are consistently aligned with their evolving needs.
Bailey Palmer: Kinesiology is the study of human movement, so by definition a kinesiologist is someone who works with patients or clients in a variety of healthcare or athletic setting to improve the quality of movement and participation in physical activity. A kinesiology professional can work as a rehabilitation specialist seeing patients throughout the day or work as an athletic trainer assisting athletes with injuries or even a professor who teaches exercise physiology classes to pre-med students. Kinesiology is a great field because of its broad range of career paths that it caters to.
Bailey Palmer: Employment for professionals in kinesiology is expected to grow by over 15% in the next ten years. People are living longer which means a higher quality of life needs to be attained in those later years. Kinesiology professionals can help to improve mobility, rehab injuries, and increase fitness levels in these individuals to improve quality of life.
Rosie Lanphere Ph.D., C.S.C.S.: Careers in Exercise Science can range from positions at a local gym to working with athletes and coaches in international sports. A bachelor’s degree in this field is very versatile because of the basic science focus and the applied science practical skills you have probably acquired in your major courses. The best advice I can give to students in this field is to gain credible certifications and licenses from organizations such as the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) and the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). These are globally regarded organizations and credentials and will soon become the standard for employment. In 2030, only students that graduate from NSCA and ACSM accredited programs will be able to sit for certification exams offered by these organizations which will strengthen your attractiveness for employment if attained.
Willamette University
Sports, Kinesiology, And Physical Education/Fitness
Michael Lockard Ph.D.: In the United States, the term kinesiologist can be used to describe someone who has studied/earned a degree in Kinesiology; however, the term does not describe a specific profession. Kinesiology is broadly defined as the study of human movement; more specifically how physical activity affects health, function, quality of life, and society as a whole. As a broad discipline, many students earn degrees in Kinesiology, Exercise Science, Human Physiology, and others. There are numerous career pathways that someone may enter with a degree in Kinesiology. These careers commonly include physical therapy, athletic training, occupational therapy, medicine, sports psychology, public health, coaching, personal training, clinical research, cardiac rehabilitation, biomechanics, and exercise physiology among many others.
Michael Lockard Ph.D.: As a discipline, Kinesiology and Exercise Science have experienced significant growth beyond that of other sciences over the last few decades. This growth has coincided with the continued growth of related fields such as allied health, rehabilitation, sports performance, and training. There continues to be significant demand within these fields for the foreseeable future.
Maryse Fortin PhD, CAT(C): Make sure you individualize your approach when working with clients. It is critical to fully understand their needs, psychosocial background, and goals. It’s also important for kinesiologists to stay on top of research and the latest clinical practices/standards. Getting involved in research is a great way to continue learning throughout your career.
Maryse Fortin PhD, CAT(C): Be proactive, continue to expand your network and do not close any doors or opportunities that present themselves. There are many interesting job opportunities in different areas in health and fitness-related sectors.
Maryse Fortin PhD, CAT(C): Be proactive, look for opportunities that may be “outside the box” and don’t be scared to start your own business.
Dr. Joshua Wooten Ph.D.: Kinesiology is the broad study of human movement. Graduates can specialize in areas such as Exercise Physiology, Exercise and Sport Psychology, or Physical Education and Coaching Pedagogy. They can work in a variety of settings like cardiac rehabilitation, personal training, strength and conditioning, or mental performance coaching.
Dr. Joshua Wooten Ph.D.: Kinesiology offers diverse career opportunities in helping people physically and mentally. Graduates can pursue certifications like Certified Exercise Physiologists, Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialists, Certified Mental Performance Coaches, or enhance their coaching and teaching abilities.
Dr. Josh Miller: Kinesiology is an umbrella term used in our field that describes the analysis of human movement, anatomical, biomechanical, pathological, and the neurophysiological aspects of movement. Within Kinesiology there are many educational opportunities that our students can pursue if they choose to in professional schools (i.e. physical therapy, occupational therapy, medical school, physician's assistant, etc.), graduate school (i.e. Master's degree in a specialized discipline of the field - exercise physiology (the study of how the body responds to exercise), biomechanics (the study of movement), or sport psychology), or find a position (i.e. personal trainer, health coach, strength coach, etc.). It is difficult to answer your question of what does a Kinesiologist do on a day-to-day basis. This would depend upon the job that they have. A good example would be someone who works in Cardiac-Pulmonary Rehabilitation. On an average day, the individual would work with patients that have had a cardiovascular event (heart surgery, stents, arrhthymias, and other related issues) in i-hour classes that incorporate aerobic exercise, stretching, and some resistance training. There may be some education to help with making changes to lifestyle (i.e. diet, stress, etc.). Additionally, they may work with patients that have just had an event or surgery.
Dr. Josh Miller: I think that students choose this field because of an underlying desire to help individuals make changes in their lives. Many of our students have spoken about a family member that worked with a PT or OT that helped them change their life. Some of our students are former athletes that were injured and worked with Athletic Trainers and Strength Coaches and really enjoyed the relationships that were formed with them and want to continue them. I think the biggest dislike that some may have is the initial challenge of getting their dream job. Working with professional athletes is very tough and many students wish is to do so and trying to get into this area is tough. Another area that some report is the time for writing notes, as this is time away from patients that they would want to be with them.
Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania
Rehabilitation And Therapeutic Professions
Jonathan Anning PhD, FNSCA, CSCS*D: To maximize salary potential when starting a career in Exercise Science, students should consider investing in advanced degrees and certifications along with specialized skills to help distinguish themselves from others in the field. Gaining practical experiences through volunteer opportunities, internships, field-related jobs, and professional organizations will help build a strong resume while establishing a professional network. Staying up-to-date with the latest research and technological advancements will also make students more appealing. In addition, students should always be prepared to negotiate their salary by confidently presenting their qualifications and the unique value they bring to their job.
Heather Sanderson Ed.D., CSCS (she/her/hers): Interpersonal skills, technological skills, and adaptability would be my top three skills I see are needed in the next 3-5 years. Young adults are struggling with interpersonal communication due to technology and as a field that works directly with patients, clients, and students the ability to have direct conversations will be vitally important to the care of their clientele. Furthermore, our global society has influenced the variety of people kinesiologists will come in contact with. So cultural competence is important when communicating with people from various backgrounds. The advancement of technology in a fast-paced market has made it imperative that up-to-date technology skills and adaptability to ongoing changes are needed for future professionals.
Heather Sanderson Ed.D., CSCS (she/her/hers): I always teach students to ask for three things when negotiating a salary - 1. Ask for something you need (higher pay, flexible hours, telecommute, professional development funds, etc) 2. Ask for something you want but don't need (a specific type of computer/phone, office location, moving expense, specific type of benefit), 3. Ask for something to enhance your position (better title, bonuses, more vacation, PTO). As a women's college, our students must work on their negotiation skills as statistically employers pay women less and give them fewer incentives. So I educate our students to know their worth and be proactive to ensure their success.
Dr. Elizabeth O'Neill: Like many fields, the integration of technology continues to expand in Exercise Science. Being versed in technology specific to one's area of exercise science will be an advantage. Additionally, given the aging demographics, the need for clinically experienced practitioners is growing.
Dr. Elizabeth O'Neill: Be willing to step outside of your comfort zone to take on opportunities that will allow you the best professional growth. Certainly moving back home can be great in terms of saving money, and in some cases that might be the best choice, however I would encourage students not to limit their geographic exploration of career opportunities. This may open up options for higher paying jobs or positions that will accelerate their career trajectory.
Saint Mary's College of California
Sports, Kinesiology, And Physical Education/Fitness
Derek Marks PhD: Sadly, kinesiology is not a field associated with high salaries and often 'side-gigs' (e.g. consulting outside of regular career) are necessary to boost a low salary. For those going into client-based personal practices (e.g. personal training) my advice is to never undersell yourself and believe you are worth top-dollar. In the more structured career options like clinical hospital work or university-based strength and conditioning positions, it is great to find ways to get some work experience, like an internship, to add to your resume and bump starting pay. Often, with careers like physical and occupational therapy, there are not many ways to start higher-up on the salary ladder due to their pay structure.
Derek Marks PhD: Our field is SO diverse, there is no way to pin point even a handful. Generally, I would say staying on top of (current) technologies in ways to communicate, make assessments, and practice your trade is essential. Wearable biometric devices are just one example of technology that can be incredibly valuable in our field and failure to understand how to utilize wearables could mean losing clients or not getting a position.
Derek Marks PhD: I generally have 3 pieces of advice I share with my graduating students. 1) be flexible - our field does not always have perfectly defined career options and sometimes you will need to take on roles you may not have thought of before in order to get the experience you need to move forward. 2) Be patient - there is often a process involved with getting experience and earning the qualification to progress to your 'dream' position. It takes time and dedication to get there. 3) Be creative - building on point #1 above, there is not always a perfect job out there and sometimes you have to go out and make it for yourself. Creating your own niche or finding positions that you can make for you can be very rewarding.
Dr. Annmarie Chizewski: The field of kinesiology is undergoing a transformative shift, driven by a growing recognition of the profound impact that physical activity and exercise can have on overall health and well-being. In the next 3-5 years, professionals who possess a deep understanding of the intricate mind-body connection and can skillfully design exercise programs that target not just physical fitness, but also mental health and quality of life, will be in high demand. As our society faces rising rates of chronic diseases and an aging population, kinesiologists who can develop and tailor exercise interventions for specific populations and conditions will play a crucial role. This requires a comprehensive knowledge of exercise physiology, biomechanics, and the unique needs of diverse individuals, from those with cardiovascular or metabolic disorders to older adults seeking to maintain functional independence. Moreover, the rapid advancement of technology in the fitness industry is transforming the field. Professionals adept in data analysis, wearable device integration, and the development of personalized, technology-driven exercise programs will have a significant advantage. The ability to leverage data and cutting-edge tools to create customized, evidence-based exercise regimens will be instrumental in optimizing outcomes and improving adherence. Ultimately, the field of kinesiology is evolving to address the complex health challenges of our time, and those who can harness the transformative power of physical activity and exercise to promote holistic well-being will be at the forefront of this evolution.
Dr. Annmarie Chizewski: Obtain certifications and specializations: Earning additional certifications and specializations beyond your degree can make you more valuable to employers. Consider certifications in areas like strength and conditioning, clinical exercise physiology, or specific population groups (e.g., older adults, athletes). Gain relevant experience through internships and entry-level jobs: Practical experience is highly valued in this field. Seek out internships or entry-level positions that allow you to apply your knowledge and develop specialized skills, even if the pay is initially lower. Develop a niche or area of expertise: Becoming an expert in a particular area, such as sports performance, injury rehabilitation, or corporate wellness, can differentiate you from other candidates and command higher salaries. Consider advanced degrees or credentials: Pursuing a master's degree, doctoral degree, or advanced credentials like the CSCS (Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist) or CEP (Clinical Exercise Physiologist) can open doors to higher-paying roles and leadership positions. Network and build professional relationships: Cultivating a strong network within the kinesiology community can provide access to job opportunities, mentors, and valuable industry insights that can aid in salary negotiations. Seek employment in high-paying sectors: Industries like professional sports, healthcare, corporate wellness, and research often offer higher salaries for kinesiologists with the right skills and experience. Continuously update your skills and knowledge: Kinesiology is a rapidly evolving field. Staying current with new research, techniques, and technologies through continuing education and professional development can make you a more valuable asset and command higher compensation.
Asia Heynen M.S.: Kinesiology is very interdisciplinary. You will learn a lot of very interesting and different things during your studies and professional life. Some folks might not like this aspect of the field, but it allows Kinesiologists the best advantage in their professional lives from drawing on many different sources of information to solve problems.
Asia Heynen M.S.: Kinesiology is a very broad discipline. As a Kinesiology major, you can find professional success in a variety of careers, such as being a physician, physical therapist, physical education teacher, nurse, sports coach, athletic trainer, occupational therapist, sport psychologist, and countless more. The day-to-day duties entirely depend on the profession itself and can vary widely depending on the personal preferences of the individual. Kinesiologists are problem-solvers and will take that drive into any profession they choose.
Peter Hosick PhD, ACSM-CEP, FACSM: I think the most important part is knowing what to expect and what is reasonable. Research what people are making in your area of the country. If you want to make more than an entry-level position be able to justify, citing specific skills that you have, that are above and beyond the minimum. I encourage those interested in health and fitness to get certifications from the ACSM or NSCA. These organizations also have additional credentials that demonstrate special knowledge or interest. When interviewing or talking to potential employers mention these certifications or credentials, they are easy to miss on a resume. The other big thing is networking. It really works! If you don’t know where to start, try your professors. If you have a professor you enjoyed or is active in the field, set a meeting to talk. As a professor and program coordinator, I routinely get emails from various places looking to hire. I love helping students make connections this way. If you’re lucky enough to attend a professional conference as a student, find out if any or your professors will also be there. Ask them to introduce you to people they know. At minimum you can meet more people and expand your network. This can expand your opportunities and increase the likelihood of finding and getting the most desirable and well-paying positions.
Peter Hosick PhD, ACSM-CEP, FACSM: I think the most important part is knowing what to expect and what is reasonable. Research what people are making in your area of the country. If you want to make more than an entry-level position be able to justify, citing specific skills that you have, that are above and beyond the minimum. I encourage those interested in health and fitness to get certifications from the ACSM or NSCA. These organizations also have additional credentials that demonstrate special knowledge or interest. When interviewing or talking to potential employers mention these certifications or credentials, they are easy to miss on a resume. The other big thing is networking. It really works! If you don’t know where to start, try your professors. If you have a professor you enjoyed or is active in the field, set a meeting to talk. As a professor and program coordinator, I routinely get emails from various places looking to hire. I love helping students make connections this way. If you’re lucky enough to attend a professional conference as a student, find out if any or your professors will also be there. Ask them to introduce you to people they know. At minimum you can meet more people and expand your network. This can expand your opportunities and increase the likelihood of finding and getting the most desirable and well-paying positions.
Peter Hosick PhD, ACSM-CEP, FACSM: For those beginning their careers in Kinesiology today, they are in a good spot. The number of career paths is expanding. There are more and more opportunities for careers in a growing number of allied health professions. During their education, I recommend they try to figure out the general area they want to pursue. Good programs make sure their students are exposed to professionals in the various careers open to them. Many Kinesiology students continue their education to pursue careers in the allied health sciences. If they finish their undergraduate degree and enter the job market, I suggest they take the approach that any opportunity to work in the field is a way to increase your network, gain experience, specialize, learn and prove their worth. I have talked to a number of recent graduates who accepted a part-time position that gave them the experience needed to get their dream either job or turned into a full-time position relatively quickly.
Dr. Imran Kayani: The advice to the beginners who want to pursue their careers in the respective field is that they should try to get the proper qualification that is either BS or MS in Exercise Science. Also have a good knowledge of EKG. Take an additional course of EKG in case it is not part of the Curriculum. Also get the BLS (Basic Life Support) certification from AHA (American Heart Association).

University of Central Arkansas
Exercise and Sport Science
Kim Eskola: Ability to work with diverse groups and in various settings.
Kim Eskola: Experience in prescriptions and advanced assessments (ECG, metabolic testing, high-tech equipment). Hands-on experience in one on one training with a diverse population.
Western New Mexico University
Sports, Kinesiology, And Physical Education/Fitness
Garrett Peltonen: There are many soft skills that are relevant to the field of kinesiology. Creativity and critical thinking are both important as Kinesiologists aims to improve health and performance through the application of current knowledge. Similarly, communication skills are important as we aim to disseminate our findings and ultimately promote physical activity. Leadership and empathy are also important as many Kinesiology provides exercise interventions for individuals aiming to improve their health.
Garrett Peltonen: Kinesiology is a science-based discipline that can be quite technical. Being able to operate data collection equipment such as a metabolic cart and collect and analyze quality data are all important skills. With that said, students learn to operate and troubleshoot various pieces of equipment and manage data in the form of constructing graphs and statistical analysis.
Garrett Peltonen: I think all skills are important to help us earn a living. With that said, if you have a passion for exercise and physical activity, you will be successful in the field of kinesiology.
William Paterson University
Department of Kinesiology
Toni LaSala Ph.D.: For an Exercise Physiologist working in Cardiac Rehab:
-Experience working with clients in Phase 2 and Phase 3 Cardiac rehabilitation
-Knowledge in assessments (subjective and objective) by going over medical history, assess risk factors at rest and during exercise
-Working knowledge of Cardiac Stress Testing
-Develop appropriate individualized exercise programs
-Demonstrate and lead proper exercises to improve patient's health
Toni LaSala Ph.D.: Students need to be compassionate and have great communication skills to be able to speak and listen to patients/clients for a variety of reasons. Some patients/clients like to talk about themselves and just want a listening ear and to hear what they are saying regarding their overall day to day activities as it relates to their health. They also need to communicate with the health care team.
They must possess strong written skills as they need to track all aspects of the patient/client visits.
Knowledge of how to use a computer.
Toni LaSala Ph.D.: -Bachelor's Degree in Exercise Science
-Knowledge in reading EKG's,
-Proficient in taking blood pressure
-Measuring pulse oxygen levels and heart rate
-Cardiopulmonary stress testing
-Knowledge in performing appropriate body composition methods
-Knowledge of how to prescribe exercise programming to those with special consideration (e.g., osteoporosis, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, pre and post-transplantation, metabolic disease, lung disorders, cancer, etc.)
-Working directly with patients to assist in lifestyle and behavior change
Randolph College
Sport and Exercise Studies
Carolyn Sarson: Hard skills include knowledge of the following:
Biomechanics of physical movement
Posture and gait mechanics
Muscle and bone anatomy and function
Range of motion of joints and stretching knowledge
Muscle contraction and involvement in specific activity skills
Sport skill analysis
Pathomechanics in activity movement
The role of exercise on muscle function