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Staff attorney job growth summary. After extensive research, interviews, and analysis, Zippia's data science team found that:
The projected staff attorney job growth rate is 10% from 2018-2028.
About 80,200 new jobs for staff attorneys are projected over the next decade.
Staff attorney salaries have increased 7% for staff attorneys in the last 5 years.
There are over 296,196 staff attorneys currently employed in the United States.
There are 75,402 active staff attorney job openings in the US.
The average staff attorney salary is $110,028.
| Year | # of jobs | % of population |
|---|---|---|
| 2021 | 296,196 | 0.09% |
| 2020 | 286,248 | 0.09% |
| 2019 | 285,874 | 0.09% |
| 2018 | 279,602 | 0.08% |
| 2017 | 273,333 | 0.08% |
| Year | Avg. salary | Hourly rate | % Change |
|---|---|---|---|
| 2026 | $110,028 | $52.90 | +3.2% |
| 2025 | $106,586 | $51.24 | +1.7% |
| 2024 | $104,809 | $50.39 | +1.4% |
| 2023 | $103,370 | $49.70 | +0.9% |
| 2022 | $102,426 | $49.24 | +2.0% |
| Rank | State | Population | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | District of Columbia | 693,972 | 291 | 42% |
| 2 | Massachusetts | 6,859,819 | 1,021 | 15% |
| 3 | Vermont | 623,657 | 65 | 10% |
| 4 | Pennsylvania | 12,805,537 | 1,127 | 9% |
| 5 | Washington | 7,405,743 | 661 | 9% |
| 6 | Colorado | 5,607,154 | 485 | 9% |
| 7 | Rhode Island | 1,059,639 | 99 | 9% |
| 8 | Wyoming | 579,315 | 54 | 9% |
| 9 | Illinois | 12,802,023 | 986 | 8% |
| 10 | Maryland | 6,052,177 | 466 | 8% |
| 11 | Minnesota | 5,576,606 | 444 | 8% |
| 12 | Oregon | 4,142,776 | 340 | 8% |
| 13 | New Hampshire | 1,342,795 | 103 | 8% |
| 14 | Maine | 1,335,907 | 101 | 8% |
| 15 | Georgia | 10,429,379 | 739 | 7% |
| 16 | Virginia | 8,470,020 | 625 | 7% |
| 17 | New Jersey | 9,005,644 | 593 | 7% |
| 18 | Arizona | 7,016,270 | 505 | 7% |
| 19 | Connecticut | 3,588,184 | 244 | 7% |
| 20 | Utah | 3,101,833 | 225 | 7% |
| Rank | City | # of jobs | Employment/ 1000ppl | Avg. salary |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Frankfort | 3 | 11% | $75,914 |
| 2 | Cambridge | 3 | 3% | $106,616 |
| 3 | Eden Prairie | 2 | 3% | $80,043 |
| 4 | Houston | 13 | 1% | $92,172 |
| 5 | Sacramento | 6 | 1% | $136,866 |
| 6 | Baltimore | 5 | 1% | $87,907 |
| 7 | Newark | 4 | 1% | $96,171 |
| 8 | Tampa | 4 | 1% | $80,608 |
| 9 | Durham | 2 | 1% | $90,265 |
| 10 | New York | 12 | 0% | $115,237 |
| 11 | Los Angeles | 4 | 0% | $132,887 |
| 12 | San Francisco | 4 | 0% | $138,041 |
| 13 | Boston | 3 | 0% | $106,701 |
| 14 | Chicago | 3 | 0% | $101,611 |
| 15 | Seattle | 3 | 0% | $96,189 |
| 16 | Washington | 3 | 0% | $122,468 |
| 17 | Atlanta | 2 | 0% | $87,328 |
| 18 | Denver | 2 | 0% | $111,363 |
Suffolk University
University of North Dakota
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
University of Georgia
Oakland University
Pepperdine University
Texas Tech University

Rollins College
University of Cincinnati
Seton Hall University School of Law

Pace University
Georgia State University

Lewis and Clark School of Law

California University of Pennsylvania

Drake University

New England Law | Boston
Andrele St. Val: You can maximize your salary potential by learning how to negotiate and then being sure you do it. Know that employers will try to pay you the minimum. Know your worth, even when starting out, and ask for it. Also, take the time to harness your skills. This can be in the form of becoming an expert in your area of the law or sharpening your 'soft skills' like negotiations.
Andrele St. Val: The skill that will become more important and prevalent in the next 3 to 5 years is knowing how to ethically leverage the use of technology to practice law more efficiently. For example, knowing how to engineer prompts to get results when using AI while also adhering to the rules of professional responsibility is going to be very useful in practice.
Andrele St. Val: Take this opportunity to learn how to practice and be a lawyer. You learned how to think like a lawyer in law school, now it is time for you to learn how to be a lawyer. You do this by getting a mentor to help you navigate the first couple of years of practice. Be open to advice and guidance.
Suffolk University
Law
Michael Bolden Former First Justice/Boston Municipal Court/Retired: My general advice to a graduate beginning their career in the law would be.....Do not think you have to make your ultimate career decision in your first job. As time goes on you may find out that what you thought you liked is not fulfilling and giving you the satisfaction you were hoping to get by being a lawyer. Give yourself permission to make a change in your career path while you hone your skills and gain experience. As a result, as you go forward keep your eyes and options open so you may end up in a place where you are getting the satisfaction you dreamed about practicing law.
Kimberly Dasse: The concept of a legal career encompasses a wide array of roles, extending beyond the traditional associate-partner trajectory. I therefore recommend that law students plan early. While still in school, seek out internships or externships that afford opportunities to explore diverse roles, such as placements at non-profits, district attorney’s offices, public defender’s offices, and law firms. This type of exposure will help students to determine what roles align best with their personal circumstances, identity, and aspirations. Once a course is set, pursue that path with determination. As practitioners, they should strive to excel by applying their academic knowledge and life experiences to their work. Pose thoughtful questions that reflect genuine engagement and consideration for the work. Cultivate mentoring relationships with seasoned professionals who can offer guidance in navigating legal practice and office dynamics. The above steps are particularly important for first-generation professionals. As new entrants to the profession, one may not have a built-in or pre-existing network, so building connections early in law school can yield significant benefits later when transitioning into the profession.
Kimberly Dasse: By taking the steps I have outlined above, new entrants will set themselves up for success by finding the right roles for themselves and developing valued skills.
Kimberly Dasse: Lawyers must adeptly navigate a diverse array of roles, ranging from advisors to counselors to planners, writers, researchers, supervisors, and more. Aside from producing quality legal work, reflect on your other strengths and dedicate time to developing yourself further. A skilled lawyer who is also an excellent manager of people offers a unique set of skills that may appeal to upper legal management in your organization. As the legal landscape evolves, I believe two key skills will emerge: technology and teamwork. The integration of AI into legal services is reshaping the profession with more innovation on the horizon. For our clients, blockchain technology, data analytics, and digitized workplaces are becoming standard. Thus, technology will become more embedded into an array of fields, not just “techie” industries. Those who follow and understand technological developments will engage the worlds our clients live in, enhance their own efficiency within their firms and deliver cost-effective services. Consequently, I urge new entrants to deepen their technological understanding and remain abreast of advancements. Additionally, collaboration lies at the heart of legal work, but its dynamics are transforming. While a solid grasp of technology is pivotal for future legal careers, honing interpersonal skills is equally vital. The future legal team may encompass a wide range of professionals in virtual settings. Thus, lawyers with high emotional intelligence who are adept at motivating individuals, building teams, and integrating the work of diverse professionals will become a valued skill. Accordingly, as lawyers consider ways to develop their skills, they should consider refining their skills as managers, supervisors, or coaches.
Ms. Debbie Snyder: Lawyers find fulfillment and satisfaction in their chosen path for a variety of reasons. First, is the intellectual challenge - lawyers are constantly thinking critically, analyzing and problem-solving in their daily work. Second, lawyers are motivated by making a positive impact on the lives of others or their community. Lawyers have the opportunity to advocate for justice and uphold the rule of law. Since lawyers are problem solvers, the work can be particularly satisfying for those who enjoy finding innovative solutions and making strategic decisions. As stated previously, a legal career can be financially stable and lucrative, depending on the setting. The legal profession can also be demanding and stressful, with lawyers working long hours in high-pressure environments. Billable hour requirements can lead to burnout. Managing client expectations can be challenging. However, despite these challenges, many lawyers find ways to manage these aspects and derive satisfaction from their careers through a combination of their passion for the law and a desire to help others.
Ms. Debbie Snyder: New lawyers are primarily responsible for research and writing. If working in a law firm setting, new lawyers are known as associates and conduct legal research, draft legal documents such as motions, briefs, memos or contracts and collaborate with partners and/or senior associates to assist clients with their legal needs. Associates may help in preparing cases for trial by reviewing and analyzing documents, organizing evidence, and attending hearings and depositions. New attorneys working in-house (i.e. for a corporation) will assist the company with their legal needs, whether it involves litigation or transactional work. Assistant District Attorneys represent the government in prosecuting criminal cases. This work involves legal research and writing, evaluating cases and evidence and appearing in court. Public Defenders represent individuals who cannot afford to hire an attorney. They also perform legal research and writing, as well as counsel their clients and represent them in the courtroom.
Dustin Marlan: This is an exciting time to be a lawyer given advances in technology. Unlike some other fields, law does not appear to be a field that will be “taken over” by generative AI, but rather AI will hopefully make some of the more monotonous work that a lawyer needs to handle less tedious and time-consuming. There should always be a need for the human element in law given the inherent subjectivities in comprehending and interpreting the law. I’m not sure that’s the case with every professional discipline, though, unfortunately.
Dustin Marlan: The daily responsibilities of a lawyer vary greatly based on what type of law they practice. Some lawyers are litigators, meaning they work to resolve disputes in their client’s favor. Other lawyers are transactional lawyers, and work to either prevent disputes from occurring, or put their clients in the best possible future position should one be inevitable. For those entering the field, junior lawyers will likely serve in research support roles and may have less client interaction than more senior lawyers, although this will vary depending on the sector, employer, or practice group. In any case, lawyers need to use both analytical skills in research, writing and solving difficult legal problems, as well as emotional intelligence and intuition in interacting with and counseling their clients.
Charity Rohlfs J.D.: Find a mentor and be involved with your local legal associations. Porter Gale said, “your network is your net worth.” And, I couldn’t agree more! As a new paralegal, legal operations specialist, or attorney, growing your network helps in all aspects of your career. You will gain new skills, increase your business development ability, engage in meaningful volunteering opportunities, and truly find an area of law you want to specialize in.
Charity Rohlfs J.D.: GenAI! Which means highlights the importance of skills like organization, communication, and consensus building. The legal field has historically been technology hesitant, but the pandemic and AI have forced the use and adaptation of technology. AI’s exponential growth will require new skills at a lightning fast pace. A bellwether in the legal field is eDiscovery as it requires the ability to organize massive amounts of information as well as clearly and concisely communicate the information. AI is helping paralegals and attorneys do just this! Finally, in a world that often hides behind screens, having the ability to build consensus and connect with others will be invaluable.
Charity Rohlfs J.D.: Do your research and clearly communicate your ask with supporting evidence. A simple internet search will provide you actual salary ranges. An applicant then needs to take this information and explain why X is the amount based on individual specifics. Also, never negotiated against yourself—meaning sometimes you need to be silent and wait.
Brian Mink: Graduates entering the legal profession will need to be highly adaptable and willing to learn new skills in addition to their legal expertise.
Brian Mink: Attorneys will spend less time on repetitive work product like contract drafting and research. It will be more important for attorneys to develop skills like understanding clients' businesses, project management, team management, vendor interaction, and effectively using AI.
Jennifer Thor: There are many ways to maximize your salary in this career field. First and foremost, is to keep your GPA up. GPA is a huge factor that law schools consider when making admissions decisions. Second, try and get some experience. Intern in an HR department; shadow a lawyer who practices in an area of law you are interested in; see if the local court takes on interns or maybe the local prosecutor's office; or volunteer with a civil rights organization that is fighting for principles that you care about. Lastly, improve your leadership skills. Join a campus group and help them achieve their goals. You do not have to become the president of the group, but you could maybe take on the chair of a committee.
Jennifer Thor: The most important skill they can learn is effective communication. Legal Studies students need to be able to communicate both in writing and verbally. This is a skill that has always been an important one for legal studies students and it will be necessary in the future as well. Although AI can help with the drafting of certain documents and emails, it will not be able to help with client meetings, board presentations, arguing before a jury, and writing legal briefs. Taking advantage of courses offered at their university that improve their writing and speaking skills will make them a valuable asset to any organization they join.
Jennifer Thor: First, Oakland University does not have a legal studies degree; however, through our Bachelor of Interdisciplinary Studies, students have been able to create their own legal studies program combining legal courses across multiple disciplines. The majority of legal studies students tend to go to law school after graduation. They typically want to continue learning about the law in order to become a lawyer. So for those graduates, I highly recommend speaking with a pre-law adviser as they begin their junior year. That adviser will give them information about taking the LSAT and what that student will need to do to make sure their application to law school is in perfect order. For those students who do not want to go to law school, but who want to work in a law firm, I recommend that they obtain a paralegal certificate. The combination of the law courses in their bachelor's degree and the procedural courses offered in a paralegal program will make that individual very attractive to law firms. Lastly, for those students who don't want to go to law school or work in a law firm, their legal studies degree is still very valuable. Many jobs require at least some understanding of the law. For example, working in HR requires knowledge about the various federal and state employment laws that impact wages and benefits. It also requires a general understanding of contract law and the law regarding workplace discrimination. Individuals working in a purchasing department need to understand contract law and depending on the type of items being purchased an understanding of the Uniform Commercial Code as well. I recommend that these students investigate different career paths and meet with their Career and Life Coaches on campus.
Joel Fetzer: The ability to analyze large quantitative datasets using software such as SPSS, STATA, or R should be increasingly valued in the political and legal world as well as in survey-research and campaign firms and in Silicon Valley. Oral and written communication skills, the ability to persuade people to do what you or your client would like, remain crucial in this field, ChatGPT notwithstanding. And workers in this area will even more frequently need to combat disinformation campaigns using social and traditional media.
Joel Fetzer: If one really would like to maximize one's income as a political-science major, the most common path is to attend a tier-1 law school such as an Ivy League institution and then go into corporate law. Some associates at top Wall-Street law firms can start at over $200,000 per year. Once they make partner, the sky is the limit. The downside of this career choice is the work schedule, which can exceed 90 hours/week including weekends and even all-nighters, and the office environment, which is often unwelcoming to women, the parents of small children, and racial minorities. If one is really interested in practicing law, I would recommend a job as a government attorney, where the salaries are lower but the work-life balance is much more humane. Another highly paid option is lobbying for private industry, which can yield mid-career income that approximates that of Wall-Street law firm associates.
Joel Fetzer: With a political science degree, one can enter pretty much any career field, including medicine and business. Several of my students have gone on to M.D. programs after majoring in political science and, of course, doing exceptionally well in the regular pre-med prerequisite classes such as calculus, organic chemistry, and biology. Another political-science graduate is now a movie producer in Hollywood. But typical occupations include law, campaigns and elections, lobbying, diplomacy, journalism, data analysis, the civil service, academia, and the military. Students should try to get internships in areas where they would consider working and then leverage the contacts made and skills learned there into full-time positions. Of my own former students, two or three are now at the State Department and one is a producer at CNN following related internships.
Leah Won: Law is a terrific profession to enter if you are interested in the ability to make an impact for your clients and your community.
Leah Won: Lawyers enjoy the opportunity to help people and organizations solve problems and achieve their goals. Lawyers enjoy thinking creatively and advocating for a position or for a person. Practicing law can become an all-encompassing endeavor that leaves little space for the parts of life that make us a whole person-setting boundaries and protecting one's mental health are crucial for a long career in the law.
Texas Tech University
Law
Kayla Wimberley J.D. TTU Law 2011: Do well in school. Get good grades. The big law firms are the ones that pay, and they are the ones that are grade sensitive. And be prepared to put in the work. The more you are willing to hustle the more you can make in your practice.
Kayla Wimberley J.D. TTU Law 2011: Legal research and writing continue to be the hallmark skills for attorneys. I don't see this changing any time soon. I do think AI will continue to make its way into our practice, so having some knowledge of the use of AI would be helpful. However, this is a people/humanity centered field. You can't fake humanity.

Rollins College
International Relations Faculty
Mike Gunter Ph.D.: Critical thinking is what we emphasize most and what studies show employers value most. This applies to both oral presentations and the written word. The truth is, today's graduates will hold well over a dozen different jobs in their careers. Oftentimes, you will have little to no training for those jobs. You will need to learn on the job. Solid critical thinking skills are a huge asset in negotiating this process.
Mike Gunter Ph.D.: From an undergraduate coursework perspective, diversity of courses taken. That combines with the level of difficulty of those courses, highlighting how a candidate has been challenged in several areas and met those challenges.
Mike Gunter Ph.D.: Good writing will always be crucial. There are all types of audiences, of course, so you need to adjust accordingly. But even as technology changes, good writing will remain a valuable asset.
University of Cincinnati
College of Law
James Tomaszewski: Demonstrated commitment to a particular practice area, especially experiential learning opportunities such as externships and clinics.
James Tomaszewski: Excellent writing skills.
James Tomaszewski: Hard work, excellent writing, and interpersonal finesse.
James Tomaszewski: Engagement, Resilience, Responsiveness, Respectfulness, Integrity.
Seton Hall University School of Law
Office of Career Services
June Forrest: Experiential skills stand out---reading, research, and writing skills that have been honed through judicial and other externships or summer positions stand out on the resumes of students seeking first jobs. In the trenches, litigation skills and other practice skills stand out on the resumes of lawyers seeking new gigs. Everyone wants an experienced lawyer who can present their case and win!
June Forrest: Communication is the most important skill for a lawyer---being able to communicate clearly, concisely, and understanding a client is a great skill to develop and have. Being able to think quickly on your feet and creatively to fashion an argument is important. And, of course, having good judgment is important! So too, lawyers work hard, so having determination is important too---and understanding people--both clients, adversaries, judges, juries. Good people skills are the mark of any great lawyer---and so is a good sense of humor! Lawyers are people, and clients are people. Likable lawyers do best out there----do you want to work around someone grumpy or a team player? Do you want a lawyer who is annoyed to take your call or who welcomes your questions? Being “likable” goes a long way in terms of success in the workplace.
June Forrest: Lawyers need to be able to read, research, write. Those are both hard and soft skills. Being familiar with new technology used in discovery and in the courtroom is important too---law schools are devoting whole classes to that kind of technology now.

Pace University
Elisabeth Haub School of Law
Leslie Garfield Tenzer: Research and writing. I would encourage every student eligible to participate in their school's law review or law journals. Participation communicates to employers that you are committed to taking on extra work and demonstrates that you have developed your legal research and writing skills beyond the core curriculum.
Leslie Garfield Tenzer: Eye contact, clarity of expression, willingness to work hard, ability to accept criticism, and strong networking skills.
Leslie Garfield Tenzer: Legal research, editing skills, and most importantly, an ability to analyze the law.
Georgia State University
College of Law
Brenda Wakefield: Employers typically look for a few different skills for tax attorneys entering the job market right out of school. Some employers may require that new tax attorneys pursue additional education beyond the J.D., such as an L.L.M. in taxation or a Masters in Taxation. However, these additional degrees are by no means a universal requirement, and many employers will be willing to hire an entry-level tax attorney without them. For applicants without an LLM or MTax to be competitive, however, they will want to have taken advantage of as many of the tax courses their law school provided, and they ideally will want to have done well in those courses. In particular, an opportunity to enroll in an academic low-income taxpayer clinic can make a student very attractive to firms specializing in tax controversy work because they know that the clinical experience has already provided a lot of the foundational, practical training that firms hope graduates will have.
Brenda Wakefield: Regarding maximizing earning potential, I think the most important thing that a tax attorney can do is take a long view of how a career can progress. On the one hand, some attorneys seek to maximize earnings right away in large law firms, and there are certainly many benefits to taking that approach. However, many firms value attorneys who have spent some time working for the government, either for the IRS, the Department of Justice Tax Division, the Joint Committee on Taxation, or the United States Tax Court. While government salaries typically are not as high as those found in the private sector, attorneys who have spent time in government service often find that when they choose to enter the private sector, their government experience allows them to command a premium in compensation that they receive from either law or accounting firms.
Brenda Wakefield: A tax attorney's most important soft skills are a willingness to listen to their client's overall goals and understand how tax planning or a tax dispute fits into the client's overall business or personal financial plan. In addition, tax attorneys should have a strong ability to communicate complex concepts in straightforward terms, as a large part of the tax attorney's job ix making the tax law more accessible to their clients by explaining how clients can achieve their goals while complying with one of the most complicated bodies of law that exist.
Brenda Wakefield: Regarding hard/technical skills, there is a misperception that tax attorneys need to have strong backgrounds in mathematics, accounting, or finance. While these backgrounds can certainly be useful, they are by no means required. Really, the most important technical skills are an ability to read statutory language very closely and carefully; the ability to recognize when the tax code provides a clear answer to a question and when the code might suggest multiple answers; strong research, writing, logic, and problem-solving skills; and keen attention to detail.

Joel Silverman: We are unique, in that we are looking for team players and attorneys that want to market and learn about the business of law. For us, it is imperative that an attorney keep an open mind towards learning about more than just the law, but about psychology, business, marketing, sales and the law. We aren't looking for experts, but those that want to grow in a more wholistic sense, within the practice of law.
Joel Silverman: I believe that the biggest trend we will see in the job market is that job seekers are going to have to become more flexible. Not only are they going to have to think about what is going to get them a job, but what are they going to bring to the table for an employer in a rapidly changing market? How can the recent graduate bring more than just the same old legal knowledge? Do they have marketing and sales experience? How can a new attorney help a firm with their social media presence? IT experience and remote learning/educating? Technology continues to evolve and shape the way in which we practice our craft and market our skills. The new graduate has the potential for a set of skills that the employer does not have and therefore, the graduate has to make that part of their practice shine.
Joel Silverman: Absolutely. Salaries have gone up by 50%, since I started, 20 years ago. Unfortunately, the cost of education has gone up faster than the increase in salaries. With that said, an attorney truly has a sky's the limit to their salary. If an attorney can understand the business of the practice of law, then that attorney has a leg up on all other competition. The business of the practice will also change, based upon the firm you are working in, at the time. However, the end result is that the better you understand the business (which isn't taught in law school), then the more you will make within the practice.

Brian Kohlhepp: Largely, this would be acquiring a Master's degree. Many folks obtain this degree for an advancement at their current employer or in order to make themselves a more attractive candidate to the overall job field.
Katie Atkinson Overberg: The pandemic has shown us how important it is to be a problem-solver, to be adaptable, and to be a team player. In addition, skills such as empathy, emotional intelligence, and resiliency will always add to a lawyer's talents.

New England Law | Boston
Career Services Department
Peter Towne: The legal world has been fortunate in not being hit as hard by the pandemic as other sectors of the economy. As with others though, we've seen a big shift towards remote work and increased flexibility in the workplace location. Thankfully, even now with many courthouses shifting to remote hearings and appearances for the time being, the past year has proven that most legal work can be done in a remote capacity and so there are still jobs and opportunity to be had. A silver lining here as well is that anything that was litigation based and had significant slowdowns due to the initial shutdown, will still likely see consistent work increases moving forward due to the now mounting backlog in the court system that will keep litigators busy for years to come.
Also, we are likely to see other upward shifts in legal work similar to other economic down turns, as there tends to be an uptick in the kinds of legal work that helps sort out the challenges faced when things go poorly. In other words, any areas where there are widespread economic challenges, the fallout tends to create legal work. For example, we'll likely see increases in bankruptcy filings, mortgage/foreclosure related litigation, evictions/housing disputes, issues around unemployment benefits, and general consumer protection actions related to consumer debt and predatory lending practices. Interestingly, despite the challenges of the pandemic, another area that has seen consistent work is real estate, resulting from the positive impact of lower borrowing costs, and perhaps some urban flight. There also is likely to be a continued uptick in divorce filings and family law related disputes.
Long term there will inevitably be other unique or novel challenges that crop up that attorneys will be called in to assist with as a result of the current crisis. Some of these may be related to contract disputes in the entertainment industry or event planning, as well as possible changes in the insurance landscape relating to business interruption insurance, workers compensation coverage, or health insurance issues.
Peter Towne: Out of law school, a good job can look very different depending on each person's interests and aspirations. That being said, generally a good job is one in legal practice, i.e. requires bar passage a license to practice law, or a position that requires a level of skill or knowledge that having a juris doctor degree provides an advantage, such as in compliance, regulatory affairs, corporate governance, data privacy/security, HR, or risk management.